- mining raw materials
- globally manufacturing all the sub components (and the creation and disposal of chemicals and tools used to manufacture)
- transporting these sub-components around the world to become other components shipped around the world to finally become a full computer
- paying people to mine, manufacture and distribute materials and components
- paying for the energy, heavy water usage and waste-disposal used during manufacturing of the computer
- land filling this computer after it becomes rapidly obsolete
This example points out some inconsistencies - on one hand a $1,000 computer is economically cheap and many (in the US) can afford one. On the other hand, it may be very expensive socially and ecologically when you ask who is paying for (or subsidizing) all those indirect costs that aren't factored in to the $1,000?
Tracing the Origins (and Costs) of Computer Components
Here is an overview diagram:
Please keep in mind that tracking information about components and sub-components is very difficult because information
is largely absent. We try to use the current model - a 2002 Toshiba laptop with a Li-Ion Battery, and a built-in LCD Monitor).
- Laptops versus Desktops - In looking at the real costs, purchasing a laptop may be generally better than a desktop becauseits production uses less materials for case and monitor. Though chips and circuit boards would likely still be equally intensive on both laptops and desktops. Also, LCD monitors "appear" to be less material intensive to build (and are more energy efficient to run), though they also have harmful chemicals (such as Mercury which exists in most LCD monitors). Additionally, I'm assuming there may be additional costs in the miniaturization required for laptop technology, such as the production of more exotic chemicals, but this is a topic for additional research.
- Computer Chips - "Computer chips that weigh well under 1 pound, create 89 pounds of waste (4,500 times the chips' weight), with 7 of those pounds being toxic waste. The processes also used 2,800 gallons of water." (Ryan, p. 46-7)
- Circuit Boards - Circuit board manufacturing "is the most chemical intensive process in the building of a computer workstation." (EPA, p. 24) The most common method is a "subtractive" process that begins with an epoxy resin and fiberglass board, bonded with conducting material (usually copper, but also platinum, palladium, and even nickel, silver or gold in special cases) and tin-lead solder. Unwanted conductive material is then etched off.
"The United States consumes half of the world's lead, mostly for car parts. Because lead is highly toxic and hard to dispose of legally, 90 percent of car batteries are recycled after use. Yet lead waste from electronic goods is almost never recycled. Scattered throughout the computer, lead solder is costly to recycle." (Ryan, p. 49)
"The computer's 2.5 lbs of copper [total] … was mined from Chilean Andes … and required excavating 280 lbs of ore and at least 300 lbs of other rock lying on top of the ore. Though [the] computer contains less copper than my car (40 lbs) or the pipes and wires in my house (even more) … the mining, crushing, grinding, and smelting … required the energy equivalent of 73 gallons of gasoline. Mining and producing metals accounts for about 7 percent of global energy consumption." (Ryan, p. 49)
- Rechargeable Lithium-Ion Batteries - New laptop batteries tend to be Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion), largely because they can be charged without having to be fully discharged ("no-memory effect").
Where is Lithium and where does it come from? Lithium is a soft, silvery, highly reactive metallic element largely mined today in Chile. Chile produces approximately the same quantity as the next 3 large producers combined (Australia, China and Russia).
Lithium batteries use about 9% of the worldwide Lithium produced ("Ceramics and glass production and aluminum smelters were the largest consumers of lithium carbonate and lithium concentrates worldwide, representing an estimated 50% of the total lithium market." source)
For Further Exploration: - Monitors (Cathode Ray Tube - CRT) - The EPA book outlines a 26 step process in the creation of a color CRT - from etching of the mask to building the glass to electron shields & guns to final construction. The CRT itself is made out of 5 different kinds of glass (some with lead) - the glass itself is rarely recycled. As a comparison, how are Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD) manufactured?
If the real cost of a computer is expensive, how do we bring those costs down? [back to top]
When looking at reducing real costs of computers, think Reduce, Reuse, Recycle. If you throw out an obsolete computer you haven't necessarily reduced costs. If you recycle a computer you start to reduce costs. If you reuse a computer (or delay its obsolescence), you reduce costs even more. If you come up with a better solution that means not buying a new computer in the first place - that reduces the real costs dramatically.
Note: Items mentioned first reduce costs the most.
1. Do we need a computer?
Do we need that particular computer in the first place? For example, computer technology is often used to replace the same tasks done by people. Are computers always the best solution for every problem? Or can you get by with the computer you have? (See next paragraph on Delaying Obsolescence)
2. How might we delay obsolesence, and extend the life of a computer?
A computer often becomes obsolete when it is too slow to run the latest software. (Or less so: when it physically breaks)
There are many potential strategies for extenting the life of your computer:
- Increase its Usefulness -
A computer becomes more ecologically expensive as the lifespan shortens because new
resources must be used to replace the computer, and there are additional costs to recycle or throw away the old computer.
- Upgrade equipment to increase performance (e.g. add more memory) rather than buy a new machine. Also, try upgrading machine using recycled/donated components:
- Maximize Utilization - see below.
- Consider using less intensive software - see below.
- Try Less Intensive Software -
Do we really need to upgrade our software as often as the industry would like us to?
Do the benefits of the latest features outweigh the costs?
Also, what about software that's less intensive in the sense that it is upgraded more on technical merit rather than solely economic drivers? Consider Open Source platforms as an alternative. (There may be educational benefits here too!) See Opening Up To Open Source. - Maximize Server Utilization - Unless you're running a huge network, most likely your computer is sitting idle. Consolidating applications to fewer servers may be an option.
- Networking/Clustering - You may be able to find new life for obsolete computers by networking them (you don't need the fastest machines to act as print, file, email (etc) servers). Or clustering computers together to ultimately create a faster computer by combining processing speed.
- Maximize Workstation Utilization - Does everyone need a computer (or certain peripherals), or can some be shared?
- Insure True Costs are Factored into Decisions - Are you factoring all the economic, social and ecological costs into your decision? It's in the best economic interests of hardware and software companies to push hardware and software into obsolescence (best interest because indirect costs aren't factored in) irregardless of technical merit - is this in the best social, ecological and even economic interest for your organization?
- Repair a Physically Broken Computer or Peripheral - If it breaks you will be told it's economically cheaper to buy a new one, rather than fix it (mainly because the indirect costs are not factored in). I personally own a 17" monitor I've had for years. One day it went dead. To make a long story short, I finally found a company that was willing to fix it, so instead of land filling a monitor (and replacing it with a not-really-that-cheap-to-buy monitor), they fixed a $5 part which they said commonly burns out because the manufactured used a cheaper (than $5) part.
3. When needing to get rid of your PC, Sell or Donate it
If you can't use it, someone else can.
4. If you can't sell or donate, then Recycle it
"Why Reuse or Recycle? Because most computer equipment contains hazardous materials, it needs to be handled properly. Computer monitors with cathode ray tubes (CRTs) - the picture tube - can contain between three to eight pounds of lead. Circuit boards also contain lead in addition to cadmium, mercury and other hazardous materials. Many other materials used in computer manufacture such as metals, glass and plastics can be recovered and used again which saves on our natural resources. The new King County Waste Acceptance rule prohibits computer monitors from commercial sources to be disposed at KC transfer stations." (Computer Recovery Project - Seattle/King County)
- Computer Recycling: Resources and Research (Carnegie Mellon University Green Design Initiative) Computer Disposal Report (PDF Format)
- Computer Recovery Project - Seattle/King County
- Computer Recycling Center
- IBM PC Recycling Service
- Batteries: The Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC)
- Share the Technology
Creating Real Costs[back to top]
What types of things create high real costs?
- Buying a Machine you Don't Need - Not buying a machine in the first place may be the highest cost savings. Can you delay obsolescence on your current machine? Do you really need to upgrade or buy a new machine?
- Throwing a Computer Away (without recycling) - Societally, this is probably the most expensive option. What happens to computers that are just thrown away?
If I'm thinking about buying a new computer, what should I look for?
- First, a broader question: Do we need that particular computer in the first place? Computer technology is often used to replace the same tasks done by people. Are computers always the best solution for every problem?
- Buy a Used/Recycled Computer
- Support Companies that practice Green Computer Design - Buy a computer that is easily recyclable, or manufactured using the least energy, materials and water.
"In all, the factories making my 55-pound computer generated 139 pounds of waste, and used 7,300 gallons of water and 2,300 kilowatt-hours of energy (about one-fourth the energy the computer would use over its four-year lifetime)." (Ryan, p. 51)
"Computers were designed to be disposed of rather than recycled, therefore it is difficult and costly to separate the high-value recyclable materials and the toxic components from discarded computers." (NWPSC) This means a lot of computer parts are land filled.
Some companies offer by-back programs, which are good if the company is taking steps to reuse or recycle the old machines (such as IBM PC Recycling Service). If not, this may just be a ploy to get you to upgrade to a new machine as soon as possible
"Computer companies need to hear from consumers about the need for cleaner product design and take back programs for recycling." (Take It Back! Make it Clean!)
Resources & Bibliography [back to top]
- Computer Recovery Project - Seattle/King County
- EPA. Profile of the Electronics and Computer Industry: EPA Office of Compliance Sector Notebook Project. Washington, DC: GPO, 1995.
- Northwest Product Stewardship Council (NWPSC). Website
- Toxic Computer Trade
- Ryan, John C. & Durning, Alan Thein. (1997). Stuff: The Secret Lives of Everyday Things. Seattle: Northwest Environment Watch.
- Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition's Clean Computer Campaign.